.. O código serve para colocar as fontes necessárias - dados do Google Fonts .. raw:: html ========================================================================================================== Meresamun Revisited: Forensic Facial Reconstruction and Reassessment of Stature Based on Computerized Data ========================================================================================================== .. figure:: images/Mere_FACE_0_FINAL.jpg .. SERVE APENAS PARA DAR UM ESPAÇO ENTRE A IMAGEM DE CAPA E O NOME DO PRIMEIRO AUTOR .. .. only:: html .. \ .. ==== .. pdftk ~/prj/SPHINX2/OrtogOnLineMag_11/_build/latex/OrtogOnBlender.pdf cat 45-53 output Meresamun.pdf && gs -sDEVICE=pdfwrite -dCompatibilityLevel=1.4 -dNOPAUSE -dQUIET -dBATCH -dPDFSETTINGS=/printer -sOutputFile=Meresamun_pre.pdf Meresamun.pdf .. Funciona com o &&, não o & que apenas roda em segundo plano | **Cicero Moraes** | *3D Designer, Arc-Team Brazil, Sinop-MT, Brazil - Bachelor’s degree in Marketing, Dr. h. c. FATELL/FUNCAR (Brazil) and CEGECIS (Mexico) - Member of Mensa Brazil and the Poetic Genius Society - Invited reviewer: Elsevier, Springer Nature, PLoS, and LWW - Guinness World Records 2022: First 3D-printed tortoise shell.* | `Google Scholar `_, `ResearchGate `_, `ORCID `_, `Homepage. `_ .. ==== .. only:: latex | Published: June 28, 2025 | ISSN: **2764-9466** (Vol. 6, nº 2, 2025) | DOI: 10.6084/m9.figshare.29436467 .. only:: html | Published: June 28, 2025 | ISSN: **2764-9466** (Vol. 6, nº 2, 2025) | DOI: https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.29436467 .. ==== .. only:: latex .. important:: The online version of this study can be accessed at: https://ortogonline.com/doc/pt_br/OrtogOnLineMag/11/Meresamun.html .. attention:: This material uses the following Creative Commons license: **Attribution 4.0 International (CC-BY 4.0)**. **Abstract** Meresamun, a priestess-musician of Ancient Egypt (c. 800 BCE, 22nd Dynasty, Thebes), was investigated through computed tomography and forensic facial reconstruction. Her cartonnage coffin, measuring 1.6 m and richly decorated with religious symbols, was analyzed in a 2009 exhibition. The current project focused on forensic facial approximation, employing free and open-source software to segment the skull from tomography data, generating 3D models. The facial reconstruction, based on soft tissue thickness markers and anatomical deformation, produced both objective and artistic images, depicting a woman of approximately 30 years. Anthropometric analyses estimated her stature at ~1.47 m, contrasting with the previously suggested ~1.68 m and aligning more closely with the mummified skeleton (~1.44 m). Cranial capacity (~1305 cm³) and head circumference (~54.47 cm) approximate modern female averages. **Keywords**: *Meresamun, facial approximation, anthropometry, Ancient Egypt, computed tomography.* .. warning:: This work is independent, with no connection to the institution that holds Meresamun's mortal remains, nor to the universities and institutions that studied them. The motivating factor of the chapter is the creation of educational material for teaching the facial approximation technique, by testing the possibility of reconstructing a face using data originally available in public links and academic journals. .. attention:: Should you encounter any errors in the text, kindly report them to the author; he may be contacted through the academic social media platforms mentioned at the beginning of the chapter. ------------ Introduction ------------ Meresamun and Her 2009 Exhibition --------------------------------- Meresamun was a woman from Ancient Egypt who lived around 800 BCE during the 22nd Dynasty of the Third Intermediate Period. Known for her cartonnage coffin, a remarkable example of the era’s craftsmanship, she belonged to a high-status family in Thebes, the primary religious center of Egypt. The coffin, measuring 1.6 m in length, is made of layers of fabric, glue, and plaster, molded over a temporary core of mud and straw, covered with white plaster, and painted with religious scenes intended to ensure her regeneration in the afterlife. The decoration includes wedjat eyes, symbols of health and protection, winged serpents with solar disks, and representations of the Four Sons of Horus, guardians of the mummified organs, along with hieroglyphs invoking divine offerings for Meresamun [Teeter_2009_e]_ [ISAC_2009_e]_. Her title of “Singer in the Interior of the Temple of Amun” indicates that she was an elite priestess-musician at the Karnak temple, performing rituals with chants and possibly instruments such as the sistrum in honor of the god Amun. The name Meresamun, meaning “Amun Loves Her,” reflects her dedication to this Theban deity, suggesting a life centered on religious worship [Teeter_2009_e]_. Computed tomography scans, conducted in 2008 at the University of Chicago Medical Center, provided insights into Meresamun’s health. The analyses indicated that she was tall for her time (~1.68 m) [UChicago_Communications_2009_e]_, with regular features, widely spaced eyes, and an overbite. The absence of growth arrest lines in her bones suggests good nutrition throughout her life, while bone mineralization points to an active lifestyle. Meresamun passed away around the age of 30, in good health, though the cause of death remains undetermined [Vannier_2009_e]_. The mummy and coffin, acquired in 1920 by James Henry Breasted, founder of the Oriental Institute, were the focus of an exhibition titled “The Life of Meresamun: A Temple Singer in Ancient Egypt,” held at the Oriental Institute Museum in Chicago from February to December 2009. The exhibition highlighted the coffin and contemporary artifacts to contextualize Meresamun’s life, offering a detailed view of her social status and religious role. An interactive video allowed visitors to explore a “virtual unwrapping” of the mummy, revealing details of her physical condition through advanced imaging technologies [UChicago_Communications_2009_e]_. A striking feature of the exhibition was Meresamun’s facial reconstruction, carried out by two independent forensic artists: Joshua Harker from Chicago and Michael Brassell from the Maryland State Police. Using computed tomography to create a three-dimensional model of the skull, Harker employed the Gatliff-Snow American Tissue Depth Marker Method, calculating facial contours to digitally recreate her appearance. Brassell produced a traditional sketch, similar to those used in homicide investigations. The reconstructions, remarkably similar, depicted Meresamun as an attractive woman of about 30 years with harmonious features. The images were displayed at the museum, published on the Oriental Institute’s website, and shared on platforms such as Facebook, Wikipedia, and YouTube [UChicago_Communications_2009_e]_. Motivation for the Current Study -------------------------------- In April 2012, the author began practical and self-taught learning in forensic facial reconstruction techniques, following the guidelines of Taylor (2000) [Taylor_2000_e]_. During this period, the author became aware of an exhibition that presented the facial reconstruction of Meresamun. Upon investigating the topic, a link was identified that provided access to download a complete computed tomography scan of the sarcophagus and the mummified body (https://webshare.uchicago.edu/orgs/Computation%20Institute/CIBS/10-12-Vannier.zip?uniq=xwkgow). The data, in DICOM format, were downloaded and used for initial tests of three-dimensional reconstruction in the InVesalius software (https://invesalius.github.io/). After achieving satisfactory skull segmentation, a facial reconstruction study was conducted in a single day, with the process documented on a personal blog (https://www.ciceromoraes.com.br/blog/?p=309). In subsequent years, the author revisited several facial reconstructions, incorporating significant technical advancements. Examples include the mummy Tothmea, initially reconstructed in 2012 and revised in 2019 [AMORC_2019_e]_, Saint Anthony of Padua, worked on in 2014 and revised in 2023 [Moraes_Bezzi_and_Carrara_2023_e]_, and the mummy Minirdis, developed in 2013 and revised in 2024 [Moraes_et_al_2024_e]_. These projects resulted in relevant findings, peer-reviewed, and published. Following this pattern, a revisit to Meresamun’s reconstruction was planned, but obstacles were encountered, such as the loss of the initial 2012 project data and the unavailability of the original download link. Fortunately, a backup containing the initial tests of Meresamun’s skull reconstruction had been preserved. Despite its lower resolution compared to the final version, these data proved sufficient to support a new facial approximation, forming the basis for the present study. It is noteworthy that, although the initial studies were driven by a self-taught approach, subsequent results were formalized in peer-reviewed academic publications, as mentioned. These contributions encompassed not only religious and historical figures but also collaborations with the Brazilian police. A significant example was the identification of a crime victim through forensic facial reconstruction, duly documented in a forensic journal [Baldasso_et_al_2020_e]_. This case illustrates not only the theoretical evolution of the technique but also its practical application in contexts of public utility. --------------------- Materials and Methods --------------------- The forensic facial approximation was performed using a computed tomography scan of the sarcophagus, publicly available for download in 2012. At that time, the InVesalius software was employed for skull segmentation, generating a model exported in STL format. This format allowed importation into other software, such as Blender 3D, used in the present study in conjunction with the OrtogOnBlender add-on (https://www.ciceromoraes.com.br/doc/pt_br/OrtogOnBlender/index.html). This add-on provides specific tools that facilitate forensic facial approximations, optimizing the process. The facial approximation technique follows the step-by-step methodology described in [Sertalp_Moraes_and_Butun_2024_e]_ and [Moraes_et_al_2025_e]_. Additionally, anthropometric calculations for Meresamun were conducted, utilizing the results of the forensic facial approximation as well as other publicly available online data, such as computed tomography images containing scale references. The objective was to estimate her potential stature in life, cranial capacity, and head circumference, complementing the study with new or robust data about the mummified body, beyond merely focusing on revealing a new face. Forensic Facial Approximation ----------------------------- .. _figMERE_1: .. figure:: images/Mere_FFA_1.jpg Initial stage of forensic facial approximation. A) Importation of the skull, placement of soft tissue thickness markers, and projections. B) Nasal and profile projection. C) Anatomical deformation. D) Final bust compared with the projections. The skull was aligned to the Frankfurt horizontal plane, and a series of anatomical points were used to place soft tissue thickness markers, corresponding to data from modern Egyptians [El_Mehallawi_and_Soliman_2001_e]_, along with complementary anatomical projections derived from measurements of computed tomography scans of living individuals [Moraes_and_Suharschi_2022_e]_ (:numref:`figMERE_1`, A). These measurements and projections were supplemented by nasal projection, using a methodology based on measurements of living individuals [Moraes_et_al_2021_e]_, which enabled the tracing of the facial profile (:numref:`figMERE_1`, B). To further enhance the data, the anatomical deformation technique [Quatrehomme_et_al_1997_e]_ was employed, in which the face of a virtual donor, reconstructed from a computed tomography scan, was imported, and the donor’s skull was adjusted to Meresamun’s, reflecting the adjustment in the soft tissue, which aligned with the profile tracing, differing only in the chin region (:numref:`figMERE_1`, C). Following the step-by-step process described in [Sertalp_Moraes_and_Butun_2024_e]_ and [Moraes_et_al_2025_e]_, the final bust was generated, interpolating data from all approaches, resulting in a model that respected both statistical projections and anatomical coherence (:numref:`figMERE_1`, D). .. _figMERE_2: .. figure:: images/Mere_FFA_2.jpg Final stage of facial approximation. A) Digital sculpting and facial details. B) Modeling and adjustment of the wig. C) Pigmentation, texturing, and scene rendering. The face underwent a digital sculpting process to align with the estimated age (approximately 30 years) (:numref:`figMERE_2`, A). Subsequently, a wig was crafted (:numref:`figMERE_2`, B), based on the 2009 approximations by Joshua Harker and Michael Brassell, which also served as a reference for skin pigmentation (:numref:`figMERE_2`, C). The final images were rendered and processed with artificial intelligence to highlight small facial details without altering the original facial structure, as exemplified in [Moraes_et_al_2025_e]_. ---------------------- Results and Discussion ---------------------- Anthropometry ------------- To calculate Meresamun’s height, images available on the University of Chicago website were used (https://web.archive.org/web/20120314121022/http://oi.uchicago.edu/museum/special/meresamun/ct_images.html). The images, all orthogonal (thus free of perspective distortion) and containing scale references between 50 and 300 mm, were imported into the Blender software as plane elements (https://docs.blender.org/manual/en/latest/modeling/meshes/import_images_as_planes.html) and resized to real scale using the provided metric reference. This allowed for the measurement of the femur (~36.58 cm), tibia (~32.3 cm), humerus (~26.5 cm), and radius (~22.49 cm). .. _tabMERE_1: .. list-table:: Height Projection Based on Long Bones. :widths: 54 29 17 :header-rows: 1 * - **Bone / Method** - **Result (cm)** - **SD** * - Raxter et al. (2008) - - * - Femur - 142.6 - 2.5 * - Tibia - 148.3 - 1.9 * - Humerus - 145.9 - 2.7 * - Radius - 153.2 - 4.1 * - Femur + Tibia - 144.8 - 2.0 * - Humerus + Radius - 149.7 - 3.2 * - Simp. AV (living) - 147.4 - 2.7 * - Pond. AV (living) - 146.9 - 1.0 * - - - * - Current (mummified) - ~144 - N/A * - Robins & Shuter (1986)\* - 147.3 - N/A * - Zakrzewski (2003) AV - 157.5 - 5.2 * - Habicht et al. (2015) AV - 157.8 - 6.2 * - 3rd Intermediate (n=20) - 158.1 - 7.2 * - AV Population (F) - 157.8 - 6.2 * - **Meresamun (Final AV)** - **147.2** - **1.9** * - Range AV - 145.3–149.1 - * - **SD from popul. AV** - - **-1.7**\*\* .. note:: \* The combined calculation of femur and tibia followed the approach of [Zakrzewski_2003_e]_. \*\* Deviation of Meresamun relative to the population mean. Using these data, it was possible to apply height estimation equations related to ancient Egyptian populations, as previously addressed and published. Care was taken to calculate the height using multiple approaches, initially following [Raxter_et_al_2008_e]_, individually for each bone and a simple overall average resulting in 147.4 cm (±2.7), and by weighted average (weights based on the standard deviations of each method) resulting in 146.9 cm (±1). The approach of [Robins_and_Shute_1986_e]_ was also used, yielding 147.3 cm. Combining all results, the simple average was 147.2 cm (±1.9) (:numref:`tabMERE_1`), a value consistent with the estimated height (~147 cm) and conservative in standard deviation, providing a range of 145 to 149 cm for her height in life. This is consistent with the expected reduced height of the mummified body, at ~144 cm, housed in a 160 cm coffin [Teeter_2009_e]_. The result was compared with the study by [Zakrzewski_2003_e]_, which examined the average height based on long bones from Egyptians spanning 5000 to 1800 BCE, resulting in 157.5 cm (±5.2) for females, complemented by findings from [Habicht_et_al_2015_e]_ covering the Early Dynastic to Greco-Roman period (3100 BCE to 30 BCE), which yielded a very compatible overall average of 157.8 cm (±6.2). When isolating only the period in which Meresamun lived (Third Intermediate, 945–715 BCE [Teeter_2009_e]_), the average height obtained was 158.1 cm (±7.2). When calculating an overall population average of 157.8 cm (±6.2), Meresamun, with ~147 cm, was found to be -1.7 standard deviations below the general mean, thus significantly below average but still within the range of normality. The equations were omitted for better readability, as the results are consistent within the context of inter-study comparisons. If needed, these can be accessed and cross-checked with the findings of the present study. However, it should be noted that the data obtained here do not corroborate the height proposed by Dr. Vannier, who in 2009 suggested ~1.68 m [UChicago_Communications_2009_e]_, approximately 21 cm taller than the ~1.47 m proposed in this study. Considering that the total height of Meresamun’s coffin is 1.60 m [Teeter_2009_e]_ and accounting for the thickness of the wood, even with the dehydration of the mummy, it seems unlikely that she was ~1.68 m in life, given that the total height of the skeleton is ~1.44 m, which indicates greater compatibility with the 1.47 m proposed here. .. _figMERE_3: .. figure:: images/Mere_Endocast_box.png Box plot graph of groups based on endocranial volume. Regarding cranial capacity, the resulting endocranial volume was ~1305 cm³ (:numref:`figMERE_3`). When converted to brain volume (-9.81%) [Moraes_et_al_2023_e]_, it yields 1177 cm³, slightly above the average for modern female individuals (Fig. X), which is 1116 cm³ (±90), within one standard deviation [Ritchie_2018_e]_. The measurement of head circumference resulted in 54.47 cm, closely aligning with the average for females, which is 54.2 cm (±2.4 cm) [Costa_2022_e]_. This situation indicates that, despite Meresamun’s height being significantly below the average at -1.7 standard deviations, her potential brain volume is slightly above the average at 0.68 standard deviation. Forensic Facial Approximation ----------------------------- Ten images related to Meresamun’s face were generated, five objective and five artistic. The objective images contain elements more consistent with the possible projections from the skull, with closed eyes (as their shape is uncertain), in grayscale (as the skin tone is unknown), and without facial hair or a wig (Images) (:numref:`figMERE_4`, :numref:`figMERE_5`, :numref:`figMERE_6`, :numref:`figMERE_7`, :numref:`figMERE_8`). The artistic images include the objective elements, enhanced with more speculative features such as eye shape, skin color, facial hair, and a wig, following the original 2009 project (Images) (:numref:`figMERE_9`, :numref:`figMERE_10`, :numref:`figMERE_11`, :numref:`figMERE_12`, :numref:`figMERE_13`). Observations on the Volatility of Digital Data ---------------------------------------------- The present study, in addition to presenting new results related to Meresamun’s face and anthropometric measurements, documents a recurring phenomenon in the era of distributed information: the volatility of digital data. In 2012, it was possible to access the computed tomography scan of Meresamun’s coffin; however, the original link is no longer available. Even accessing the tomography images required retrieving an updated address. This fact underscores the importance of maintaining distributed backups of relevant data, as their unavailability can hinder significant scientific advancements. In the case of this study, the absence of the complete tomography limited the achievement of even more precise results. Nevertheless, the remaining data, preserved for over a decade, were sufficient to enable an approximate facial reconstruction and the derivation of some anthropometric measurements. .. _figMERE_4: .. figure:: images/Mere_FACE_0_obj_FINAL.jpg Objective facial approximation 1. .. _figMERE_5: .. figure:: images/Mere_FACE_1_obj_FINAL.jpg Objective facial approximation 2. .. _figMERE_6: .. figure:: images/Mere_FACE_2_obj_FINAL.jpg Objective facial approximation 3. .. _figMERE_7: .. figure:: images/Mere_FACE_3_obj_FINAL.jpg Objective facial approximation 4. .. _figMERE_8: .. figure:: images/Mere_FACE_4_obj_FINAL.jpg Objective facial approximation 5. .. _figMERE_9: .. figure:: images/Mere_FACE_0_FINAL.jpg Artistic facial approximation 1. .. _figMERE_10: .. figure:: images/Mere_FACE_1_FINAL.jpg Artistic facial approximation 2. .. _figMERE_11: .. figure:: images/Mere_FACE_2_FINAL.jpg Artistic facial approximation 3. .. _figMERE_12: .. figure:: images/Mere_FACE_3_FINAL.jpg Artistic facial approximation 4. .. _figMERE_13: .. figure:: images/Mere_FACE_4_FINAL.jpg Artistic facial approximation 5. Conclusion ---------- The study of Meresamun illustrates the value of digital technologies in forensic anthropology, utilizing computed tomography and freely accessible software to reconstruct her appearance and examine physical characteristics. The facial reconstruction, combined with anthropometric calculations, allowed for a revision of height estimates (~1.47 m) and reinforced the reliability of integrated approaches to archaeological data. The measurements of cranial capacity and head circumference, consistent with contemporary standards, contribute to a more detailed understanding of Meresamun’s anatomy. This work highlights the potential of accessible tools to broaden access to scientific research, enabling a careful review of the past and bringing the history of a Theban priestess closer to the modern public. Thus, it seeks to enhance cultural heritage through technological innovations, respectfully complementing the efforts of the researchers from the original 2009 project. --------------- Acknowledgments --------------- Thanks to Dr. Richard Gravalos, who provided the tomography of the virtual donor. ---------- References ---------- .. raw:: latex \begingroup \def\section#1#2{} \def\chapter#1#2{} \begin{thebibliography}{1234} .. [AMORC_2019_e] AMORC. (2019). Você conhece a história de Tothmea – Museu Egípcio Rosacruz. https://museuegipcioerosacruz.org.br/voce-conhece-a-historia-de-tothmea/ .. [Baldasso_et_al_2020_e] Baldasso, R. P., Moraes, C., Gallardo, E., Stumvoll, M. B., Crespo, K. C., Strapasson, R. A. P., & de Oliveira, R. N. (2020). 3D forensic facial approximation: Implementation protocol in a forensic activity. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 66(1), 383–388. https://doi.org/10.1111/1556-4029.14587 .. [Costa_2022_e] Costa, N. 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